British Depth Study 1890-1918 Essay

What were the living and social conditions like in the 1890s? Living conditions: * Towns became overcrowded. * People lived in slums, often whole families lived in one room. * No internal water supplies. * Shared outside toilets. * Limited electricity, wealthy families were starting to get it. * Larger families but higher infant mortality. * Very limited birth control, moral distaste. * Church taught contraception was wrong. Working conditions: * Most workers worked in factories. * Peace work – women given work to do at home or in small workshops, sewing or making matchboxes or candles, many others worked in textile factories. It was used to supplement the man’s income. * No minimum wage or restrictions on the amount of hours worked. * No unemployment benefit, sick pay or pensions. * Many workers only had seasonal employment. * Safety at work had improved, rates of pay were still the same. The state believed it was down to the employee to accept a wage. State of education: * State education until twelve. * Church schools provided a different type of education, most school were church schools. * Factory schools educated the children of their workers. * Very limited secondary education, only available for the wealthy Victorian attitudes and solutions to poverty: * Rich deserved to be rich, poor deserved to be poor. * Deserving poor were morally correct, mainly women and children. * The undeserving poor spent money on beer, drugs and prostitutes and were morally irresponsible. * Had to help yourself. * People went to workhouses, worked for food and a bed. What were social reformers doing in 1890s and what motives were there for reforms? William Booth and the Salvation Army: * Like Christian groups gave hot soup and bread to people but did more. * William and Catherine Booth went out and found poor people within East London. * East London mission expanded until in 1878 had 45 branches and was called Salvation Army. * Organised like an army. * Used attention-grabbing techniques – smart uniforms, brass bands to get attention and money. * By 1900 it ran training centres, labour exchange to help people find jobs, a farm and brickworks. * Designed to help people and train poor. * Salvation Army gathered information about poor and causes of poverty, showed some people couldn’t help being poor – out of their control * William Booth described poverty in three circles; the starving and homeless (honest poor), those that lived by vice and those that lived by crime. Charles Booth: * Wealthy Liverpudlian, inherited business and moved to London. * Refused to accept Government statistic that 25% of working population in London was in poverty. * Spent 17 years with a team investigating living conditions, income and spending of over 4000 people. * Found 31% of Londoners lived below poverty line. * Many thought it was their own fault they were poor but Booth worked out 85% were poor because of wage and unemployment problems. Split the poor into four groups: * Class A – lowest class – street sellers, criminals, loafers – life of savages with extreme hardship – 11,000/1.25% population * Class B – causal earnings – widows, deserted women, part time labourers – shiftless and helpless – 110,000/11.25% population * Class C – occasional earnings – hit by trade depressions – 75,000/8% population * Class D – low wages, less than 21 shillings per week – dock labourers and gas workers -just enough to survive – 129,000/14.5% population Seebohm Rowntree: * Intrigued by Charles Booth’s findings he wanted to see how York compared. * Calculated a family of 5, 3 adults and two children could live off 21 shillings and 8 pence per week. * Found 28% of York families were below this line, divided them into two categories: * Primary poverty – no matter how hard a family worked, they would never earn enough money to provide themselves with adequate food, shelter and clothing. These families didn’t stand a chance. * Secondary poverty – These families could just about feed, clothe and shelter themselves, provided there were no additional calls on their income. These families lived on the edge. * 10% of York in Primary poverty, 18% in Secondary poverty. * Used Booth’s idea of poverty line to work out when may be above or below. Other motives: * Surveys like those of Charles Booth and Rowntree changed opinion. * Impact of the Boer War – 40% volunteers were unfit for the army and falling behind Germany. People feared Britain would no longer be great power imperially, economically and militarily unless looked after people better. * German government had already introduced social reforms like pension and insurance schemes. * Labour party formed in 1900 poised a threat and Liberals feared losing working class votes unless they acted. * In 1906 Liberals won landslide majority and were expected to act. * Some New Liberals were in Cabinet and had the power and responsibility to help the state. What reforms were brought in? Elderly: Pensions Act (1908) * Gave weekly pensions from government funds to the elderly. * Only for over 70s * Promised to be introduced in 1908 and made law the year after. * Single person could receive 5s (s=shillings) per week. * Married couple could receive 7s 6d (d=pence). Later increased to 10s. Children: Free School Meals (1906) * Local councils given power to give free school meals to children from the poorest families * Paid for from the local rates * By 1914, 158,000 children were getting free meal once per day School medical inspections (1907) * Doctors and nurses went to schools and gave compulsory medical checks. * Recommended any treatment that should be done. * Checks were free, treatment wasn’t. * In 1912 treatment became free Children’s Act (1908) * Children became ‘protected persons’, people could be prosecuted for cruelty against them. * Poor law authorities had to visit and supervise children who had suffered cruelty or been neglected. * All children’s homes were registered and inspected. * Children under 14 who broke the law couldn’t go to adult prisons. * Juvenile courts were set up to try children accused of a crime. * Children who committed a crime were sent to Borstals, specially built and equipped for young offenders * Children under 14 couldn’t go in pubs. * Cigarettes couldn’t be sold to under 16s. School clinics (1912) * Network of school clinics set up to provide free medical treatment. * Necessary because some parents could not afford the treatment needed that was discovered during medical inspections. The sick and unemployed: Labour Exchanges Act (1909) * National string of labour exchanges set up. * Unemployed workers went to labour exchange to look for work. * More efficient than tramping around workplaces and more efficient for those offering work to people. * Like modern job centre. National Insurance Act (1911) * Insurance scheme aimed to prevent poverty because of illness. * Workers could insure themselves against sickness and draw money from the scheme if they fell ill and could not work. * All manual workers and people in low-paid white-collar jobs had to join. * Workers paid 4d for insurance stamps which they stuck on a special card. * Employers contributed 3d per worker. * Government contributed 2d per worker. * If a worker fell ill they got sick pay of 10s for 13 weeks, then 5s for 13 weeks in any one year. National Insurance Act, Part 2 (1911) * Aimed to prevent poverty because of unemployment. * Insured workers for the periods of time that they were out of work. * At the start scheme open to mainly men who worked in jobs where there was a great deal of seasonal unemployment such as shipbuilding and engineering. * Workers, employers and Government each paid 2d in insurance stamps per week. * When unemployed workers could claim 7s 6d per week for 15 weeks. How effective were these reforms? Children Benefits: * Free school meals for the poorest families’ children. * Free medical checks at school and after 1912 free treatment. * New laws passed to protect children. Drawbacks: * Had to pay for medical problems between 1907 and 1912 despite free checks. * Only some councils gave free school meals. * Limited enforcement of new laws. Elderly Benefits: * Funded by the state (non-contributory). * Provided some state assistance. * Kept elderly out of workhouse. Drawbacks: Couldn’t get it if: * Had been in prison within the last ten years. * Earned over  £31 2s per year. * Hadn’t been a British citizen for twenty years. The Sick Benefits: * 10 million men and 4 million women involved. * Stopped people falling into poverty through sickness. * Allowed people to get money if they were ill. * Got 9d for every 4d paid in. Drawbacks: * Cost worker 4d for insurance stamps, employers paid 3d and Government 2d. * Could only claim for 26 weeks per year, half at reduced rate. * Was compulsory. The unemployed Benefits: * Stopped people going into poverty because of unemployment * Labour exchanges. * Helped people who were in seasonal employment. Drawbacks: * Cost worker, employer and Government 2d per week. * Only available for 15 weeks per year. * Limited to a number of professions (2.25m eligible). Female Suffrage What were the social, political and legal positions of women in the 1890s? Working class: * Before 1870, most didn’t go to school. In 1870 state education set up and became compulsory by 1880. * By 1900 97% of all children could read and write. * At school predominantly taught to be good housewife. * Most working class women had small job – supplement man’s income. * Near end 19th century new jobs for women appearing e.g. typing. * Got less pay for same wage as men and worked long hours. Middle and upper class women: * Educated to be good companions. * In 2nd half of 19th century women got more freedom. * Still hard for women to get into higher education. * Women’s colleges had been set up but women still couldn’t get degrees. * New employment opportunities opened up for middle-class women; teaching, nursing and clerical work. Marriage: * Inferior position to husbands. * Became property of husband when they married, transferred all belongings. * Could rape and batter wives, women couldn’t instigate divorce. * Some changes came in in 1900: women could divorce men for cruelty, desertion and bigamy, women kept property after marriage, women couldn’t be kept in husband’s home against will. Votes: * Women had good jobs but couldn’t vote. * In 1867 Parliament had considered giving women the vote but decided against it. For and against female suffrage For: * Women had wealth and careers but were not allowed to vote. * It would get men to raise their moral standards like women. * Equality would stop pre-marital sex, prostitution and venereal disease. * Britain is not a democracy until women get the vote. * Voting is a right to which women are entitled. * Other countries were giving women the vote. Against: * Women and men have separate spheres. * Most women do not want the vote. * Women are represented by their husbands. * It is dangerous to change a system that isn’t broken. * Women’s role is in local affairs. * Women do not fight to defend their country. How effective were the activities of the suffragists and the suffragettes? Suffragists: * Bulk of campaigners; they encouraged, educated and persuaded people. * Didn’t undertake direct action campaign. * Entered political pact with labour party. Suffragettes: * Were the minority. * Set up by Emmeline Pankhurst and her two daughters. * Frustrated in 1906 when the vote wasn’t given to women. * At start causes nuisance and attacked symbols of the state. Winning the vote: * Propaganda – newspapers, posters and pamphlets * Meetings and demonstrations – held mass meetings and parades drawing over 20,000 protestors. * Civil disobedience and petitions – not paying taxes, boycotted 1911 census, 1910 petition to parliament in support of Conciliation Bill, over 250,000 signatures. * Hunger strikes – 1909 a number of WSPU supporters went on hunger strike whilst in prison to be recognised as political prisoners. Authorities force-fed them and passed cat and mouse act in 1913. * Suffragette violence – Slasher Mary destroyed paintings at the National Gallery, Lloyd George’s second home was firebombed, Emily Davidson dies at the Derby in 1913. Cat and Mouse Act: * Women began going on hunger strike in 1909 to be recognised as political prisoners. * Government couldn’t allow them to die and be seen as martyrs. * First started releasing them after a few days then started force-feeding. * In 1913 Cat and Mouse Act was passed allowing the women on hunger strike to be released after a few days and re-arrested once they had gone back to a healthy weight. Conciliation Bill: * WSPU calls off violence when Asquith agrees to give women the vote. * Asquith stalls on Conciliation Bill. * WSPU protests and turns into Black Friday, fights with police leading to WSPU members being assaulted. Date| Actions by Parliament| Actions by Militants| 1906| Liberals elected to Government| Start to disrupt liberal’s meetings to get votes for women discussed.| 1907| Government shows no interest in votes for women| NUWSS organises march to London| 1908| Herbert Asquith becomes Prime Minister| Suffragettes step up campaign to prove to support for women’s votes to Asquith| 1908| Some WSPU members arrested| WSPU smash windows in Downing Street and chain themselves to railings| 1909| Start force-feeding in prisons| WSPU step up campaignsHunger strikes in prison start| 1910| Discussions about Conciliation BillGovernment stall about Conciliation Bill| WSPU suspend campaignBlack Friday, when Government stalls.| 1911| Government abandons Conciliation Bill and gives more votes to men| WSPU furiously restart and step-up campaign| 1912| | Massive window smashing campaign by WSPUWSPU headquarters raided and many arrests, Cristobel Pankhurst flees to Paris| 1913| Introduction of the Cat and Mouse Act| Violence is increasedEmily Davidson dies at the Derby| 1914| Cracks down on WSPUWSPU prisoners released at start of the war| Continues with more violence, lose public supportHalts campaign when war breaks out| Did the violent methods of the Suffragettes help? Yes: * Made female suffrage front page news, brought to the attention of the public and Government. * When the issue had been raised it wouldn’t go away. Sooner or later they’d get the vote. * The idea of women voting became less strange. * The violence didn’t change Asquith’s opinions, he was already against it. No: * Violence played into Government’s hands, gave them an excuse not to give them the vote. * Government at time appeared close to giving vote but couldn’t be seen to be giving in to violence. * Violence turned moderate MPs against female suffrage, why bills for suffrage failed. * Supported the view women were not responsible enough to vote. * In 1913/14 NUWSS was growing in popularity at expense of WSPU, turning away from violence. How did women contribute to the war effort? Attitude of campaigners to the outbreak of war: * WSPU called off campaign and contributed to the war effort. * Emmeline and Cristobel Pankhurst started ‘Right to serve’ campaign demanding bigger roles for women. * Sylvia Pankhurst headed a breakaway pacifist movement opposing the war. * NUWSS – Millicent Fawcett backed the effort and NUWSS helped enrolling women to work in factories. Continued to campaign for suffrage but more low key. Roles of women during the war: * Supporting men – run families whilst men away fighting (extra responsibility) * Occupied position in the workforce. * Worked in expanded armaments factories and other jobs vacated by men. * Vital especially after munitions crisis of 1915 and by 1918 6 million women in employment (mainly munitions). * Suffered poor conditions e.g. ‘canaries’ who worked with dangerous chemicals (sulfur) * Canaries skin went yellow, some were sterilised by chemicals and some got kidney and liver disease. * Women’s land army – 16,000 women joined army to grow food, act as nurses and drivers. Problems women faced: * Balancing work and home * Food problems – rationing and food prices * Monetary problems – rent strikes, resolved by Rent Restriction Act. * Separation allowances – money paid to wives of servicemen and a pension if he died at war. Changing social attitudes: * Motherhood – Mother’s day introduced in 1916 to celebrate importance of women. Raised profile of mothers and encourage growth of birth rate, including recognition of unmarried mothers. * Greater social freedom – utilised extra income and numerous affairs leading to growth of STDs, some councils attempted a curfew to solve problem. Why women were given the vote in 1918 Problems with the franchise: * Wartime problems – many men lost the right to vote and registers out of date * Lobbying by Fawcett and NUWSS – petitioned electoral conference held in 1917 Details of the 1918 Representation of the People’s Act * All women over 30 allowed to vote and become MPs, all men over 21 could vote * There were some concerns over the majority of the electorate being women and young women lacking maturity Reasons for female suffrage in 1918: * Changing attitude of politicians – more sympathetic Lloyd George now PM * Contribution to the war effort – war work gave ideal reason for many politicians to end opposition * Limited female suffrage – appeased moderate opponents * Fear of return to suffragette militancy – avoid prospect of locking women up who had helped the war effort Campaign did not end until 1928 when the age of voting was equalised to 21 Impact of WWI How were civilians affected by the war? Recruitment: * Initial voluntary campaign led by Kitchener *  ½ million men joined in first month, 2.5 million by March 1916 * Men kept together in ‘Pals Battalions’ * Liberal Government wouldn’t force people to join up * In 1914 Britain had a huge empire but army of only 250,000 men * January 1916 Conscription Act passed making all men ages between 18-41 eligible for military service * Those in vital war industries were kept back Conscientious Objectors: * People who would not join up – mainly religious or humanitarian reasons e.g. Quakers * Mostly viewed as cowards by general public and referred to as ‘conchies’ * Given white feathers to shame objectors into joining up * Government – set up tribunals to decide if there were genuine reasons not to go to war * Could force them to help war effort in non-combatant roles on front line * Those who refused were imprisoned, if refused orders they were shot. Threat of shells, bombs and fear of invasion: * Shelling of coastal towns – December 1914 shelled Scarborough, Whitby and Hartlepool killing 119 people * Zeppelin and Gotha bombing raids – smaller zeppelins started bombing January 1915 – responsible 564 deaths and 1370 injuries. Later larger Gotha airships from May 1917 responsible for 835 deaths and 1990 injuries. First time UK vulnerable to foreign air attack. * Preparation for invasion – shelling of costal ports lead to plans issued in event of invasion. Organising Britain for war: * Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) – August 1914 * DORA gave government powers over nearly all areas of life including seizing businesses, land and controlling the spread of information * Control of industry – mining industry taken over by government, improved wages of workers. * Lloyd George headed new Ministry of Munitions created after shell crisis of May 1915. * Introduced modern techniques and dramatically improved efficiency – controlled over 20,000 factories. * Took over shipbuilding, mines and train networks. * Brought in drinking laws, controlled pubs (watered down beer) and controlled football fixtures. * Railways – needed to move troops around to ports to send them to France. Guaranteed the companies the same profit levels as 1913. Same thing happened with mines. Controlling food production: * Threat to food imports – UK relied on foreign imports of food and with the unrestricted German U boat campaign from 1916 faced severe food shortages and by April 1917 had 9 weeks supply left. * Germany wanted to ‘starve Britain to the negotiation table’ * Imported: 80% wheat, 50% milk, 50% fruit and veg, 100% sugar. * Improve supply of food – focus on expanding cultivation by increasing amount of arable land and expand agricultural workforce with Women’s Land Army. * Rich people bought more food than they needed causing prices to rise. Rationing – Also Ministry of Food of food set up anti-waste campaign and subsidised price of bread. * Voluntary rationing replaced by compulsory scheme in 1918, rationing included meat, sugar and butter. Ended in 1920. * Changes to British lifestyle – Asquith ran war effort as ‘business as usual’. * Lloyd George attacked waste, idleness and drunkenness and introduced restrictions on public entertainment (e.g. banning sports event and public holidays) and the sale and consumption of alcohol – introduced idea of total war effort. * Loss of holidays lead to strikes in 1917 and 1918. How effective was Government propaganda during the war? Newspapers: * Tight controls on what journalists on the front line could say. * Censored the wording of the reports. * No casualty lists until May 1915. * Ministry of Information censored letters home from soldiers, soldiers felt betrayed that their families believed the lies produced by the newspapers. Posters, postcards and cartoons: * Useful visiual impact, 110 were published during the war, 5 million copies issued. * Range of messages – anti-German, anti-waste and morale raising themes, recruitment. * All avoided any explicit description of the war. * Used postcards to develop themes e.g. ‘Telling the Story’ which showed the progression of a young soldier to his proud parents and family. Official photographs and paintings: * Low number of official photographers at the start of the war, 4, compared to Germany’s 50 and France’s 35. * Weren’t allowed to photograph dead bodies. * Later when Lord Beaverbrook became Minister of Information he gave the photographers more freedom as he wanted to collect a record of the war. Official films: * Used as newsreels. * Aimed to persuade people to help the war effort by mocking German’s and praising the British effort. * Most famous, The Battle of the Somme, consisted of staged and real footage. * Played to huge audiences and shocked many people with graphic scenes of death. Why did some women get the vote after the war? * Lloyd George had replaced Asquith in 1916 and he was more sympathetic to the idea. * Soldiers had lost right to vote by being abroad for a long time, needed more voters. * War work by women destroyed arguments of MPs against votes for women. * Many men were now in favour of women getting the vote after their contribution to the war effort – Britain may have lost the war without their help. * One of the arguments against women getting the vote was that they couldn’t help to defend their country, this argument was now invalid. * Conservative MPs were happy women under 30 wouldn’t get vote as they were worried young working-class women vote Labour. * Liberal and Labour MPs were happy all women over 30 would get the vote. This meant working-class, middle and upper class, so they wouldn’t all vote Conservative. * The Government was afraid that the suffragettes would restart their campaign after the war and didn’t want to imprison those who helped them win the war. On the other hand: * Many men, especially those in trade unions, did not welcome women workers in the First World War. They were worried that they would work for lower wages and take their jobs. They were not impressed by the work that women did! * Some women did not support the war effort, for example, Sylvia Pankhurst. She campaigned against the war. Some members of the NUWSS continued to campaign for votes for women. Did the Government really feel it wanted to reward these women? * The women who did much of the really dangerous, hard, and crucial work in the war were young and working class, for example, the munitions workers. And yet they were not given the vote in 1918! After the war What was the attitude of the British people at the end of the war towards the Germans and the Paris Peace Conference? Attitudes towards Germany: * Impact of wartime propaganda and casualty figures – effect of anti-German propaganda and UK casualties of over 600,000 * Felt Germany should be severely punished as they started the war * Public mood and the 1918 election – Lloyd George and the Conservatives dominated the collation given mandate to ‘hang the Kaiser’ and ‘squeeze Germany Attitudes towards war in general: * Influence of war poets – Sassoon etc. changing the image of war * Rise of pacifism – anti-war mood, First World War seen as the ‘the war to end all wars’ * Changing attitudes towards the Peace Treaties – Keynes and other criticisms of peace treaties leads to change in public attitude

Delayed Gratification

â€Å"The ability to discipline yourself to delay gratification in the short term in order to enjoy greater rewards in the long term is the indispensable pre-requisite for success. † Brian Tracy, a self-help author who also makes presentations on leadership skills, sales topics, managerial effectiveness, and business strategy, is correct on the topic of delayed gratification. According to Google Dictionary, delayed or deferred gratification is the ability to wait in order to obtain something that one wants. This is what everyone should do so they can obtain what they want in the future, by working their hardest now.In the year 2010, young adults are having trouble grasping the idea of delayed gratification and if they don’t know what delayed gratification is they get into problems that many people don’t want to be in. People in high school must learn that delayed gratification will help them in the long run because if they do well in high school they will get int o a good college and then get a good job, but it can also go the other way too. If they do badly in high school they won’t get into college, they will work a job that doesn’t pay much and they will be unhappy because nobody respects them because they didn’t go to college.This concept also ties in with materialism because many students want the latest and greatest in technology and other gadgets and when they start to drool over the amazing things they can get, they start to take their mind off of school and onto getting a job. If they get this job and forget about school, they won’t be able to do well in the future and then they won’t be able to live by themselves, because they won’t have enough money to pay the bills, because the job they got to get the gadget they wanted, was an instant gratification job or a job that will pay small money very quickly.According to two professors of the University of Washington, in 1998, of 1000 high school students only 457 of them stayed on track through all four years of high school and were on time for graduation. This means that over 50% of students don’t do well in high school and mess up going into college, which also messes up their future. Four hundred thirty four of the 1000 dropped out, or transferred to a different school and 109 graduated later. These statistics maybe outdated but are still good to know about them so we can learn from our mistakes. These statistics are very bad for students and there is a way for them to ecome better and exceed in the future by also working hard now. Delayed gratification is a smart way to go if you want live a successful life in the future. Walter Mischel at Stanford University, conducted an experiment called, The Marshmallow Experiment. This experiment was done in the 1960s and tested what kids would do if marshmallows were sitting on a table. The idea was to see if the children that could wait would demonstrate they had the abil ity to delay gratification and control impulse, both significant and important traits for attaining wealth and being financially successful.The experiment was a group of four-year-olds were given one marshmallow and promised a second one on the condition that they wait twenty minutes before eating the first one. Some children were able to wait and others could not. The researchers then followed the progress of each child into adolescence and demonstrated that those with the ability to wait were better adjusted and more dependable, and scored significantly higher on the Scholastic Aptitude Test years later. This shows that waiting is best and if you learn the ways of delayed gratification you can succeed in life.Delayed gratification is crucial to have a grand life in the future. If a person has learned delayed gratification and is able to apply it to their life, they will exceed in high school, exceed in college, get a superior job, and retire in good health. This is why people shou ld go by delayed gratification because not only will you be intelligent and will be able to speak about current topics easily, you will be respected by people you meet and have an easy life in the future.

Facets of guidance Essay

2.1 Personal and social guidance Personal and social guidance is needed by learners in order to cope with negative feelings; such as feeling inferior, rejected, lonely, hated, indecisive, inadequate or dislike for themselves. As well to transform them into positive feelings; such as having a good self-esteem, feeling loved, accepted, happy and confident. Educators and counsellors will use personal and social guidance to fulfil one of their principal responsibilities – to enable learner to develop a positive self-image. Personal guidance will also enable learners to deal with crisis such as changing schools, physical abuse, violence in the home or community or the death of a parent or sibling. A form of social guidance is the interaction of learners, with parents, educators, learners, siblings and other members of the community. These forms of interaction can provide social and emotional satisfaction but may also lead to behavioural problems, which need social guidance to address them. Educational guidance Educational guidance includes all the facets of learning e.g. memorising  work, how to learn for and write tests, i.e. everything relating to the learners schoolwork. With regards to learners finding difficulty with schoolwork, educators must identify the issue, deal with it and find solutions for it. Study methods, learner’s motivation to learn, academic assistance and reinforcement of academic work, as well as unrealistic expectations of educators and/or parents can all be addressed through educational guidance. Problems with education don’t happen in isolation, therefore educational assistance should take all other aspects e.g. the person himself or herself, the home, peers, school and community into account. Vocational guidance This facet of guidance involves viewing the learner as an individual and guiding them to make a realistic career choice. It is important for the learner to become familiar with the concept of â€Å"the workplace†, therefore career education should begin at primary school with emphasis on exploring work opportunities, instead of on specific selection of work. Learners should be introduced to various careers in pre-primary school, by means of different themes and by visits to a hospital, doctor, dentist, farm, fire station, etc. 2.2 Firstly I would use an exploratory interview to assist Nomsa as she is only in grade 2 and this interview is particularly used for learners who are very young. I, the counsellor, would be able to find out, through deliberation, who Nomsa is, as well as find out the nature and scope of her problem by means of the exploratory interview. Secondly, I would use the historicity interview in order to get a better understanding of Nomsa. This interview would give me an indication of her personal development thus far and would also allow me to see her views about her education and school experience. I would then carry out an informative interview with Nomsa and her parents and by doing so I will capture data on Nomsa’s personality structure and education, which in turn can be processed by her parents and educators in the view to support her. Lastly, I would use the advisory interview to set Nomsa’s parents on their way toward more efficient guidance of their child. By carrying out this interview, I will be able to provide  Nomsa’s parents with moral support, advice and help and will be able to give them informed suggestions on how to improve her educational situation. 2.3.1 Sensing: An understanding of sensing will equip the teacher to offer educational guidance for the young child/learner as the teacher will be aware of the fact that sensing is essentially the moment of all learning. The teacher will also know that learners become aware of things through their five senses and he/she can therefore use this knowledge when planning activities for his/her learners. Furthermore it will be evident to the teacher that learners will not become involved in learning activities unless sensing is adequately actualised and the teacher will then be able to realise that sensing plays a vital role in learning. 2.3.2 Paying attention: An understanding of the learning mode, â€Å"paying attention†, will equip the teacher to offer educational guidance for the young child/learner as the teacher will understand that it is through the senses that learners become involved in the learning process but that it is however imperative for learners to stay involved in the learning content. This involvement is determined by the learners willingness, which in turn sets in motion learning activities such as thinking, perceiving, fantasising , imagining and memorising. 2.3.3 Perception: Perception is a precondition for learning and is dependant upon the senses. The teacher will therefore know that it is through the perception process that the learner will identify the learning content. The teacher will also be aware of the fact that language development and perceiving are closely interwoven; therefore the language used is the medium of stating what is perceived. 2.3.4 Thinking: The understanding of the concept of thinking will equip the teacher to offer educational guidance for the young learner as it will be evident to the teacher that the thinking constitutes to problem solving, the teacher will also be aware of the fact that emphasis must be placed on analysing, planning, reasoning, synthesising and arranging of learning content. The  teacher will also know that there are two types of thought development – reproductive thought, which plays an important role in the recall of existing memory; and productive thought which leads to the forming of new concepts. Bibliography Papalia, DE & Olds, SW. 1978. Human development. Toronto: McGraw-Hill.

Technologies Used by Law Enforcement Research Paper

Technologies Used by Law Enforcement - Research Paper Example But whether or not this potential is fully recognized, and at what speed, is not an inevitable conclusion. Groundwork on this subject propose what if its incorporation is not correctly supervised, some features of information technology may meet with confrontation among officers and other staff, mainly when such technology is seen as unjustly invasive or technically unwieldy. Furthermore, questions about security cost, and privacy need to be addressed as well. (Reichert, 2001) Due to the speed and velocity of advances in this field of information technology in current years, sovereign studies on the collision of information technology on policing are also of our concern. It seems predominantly significant, in this regard, to evaluate the experiences of some of the founders of information technology in the field of policing. (Reichert, 2001) Description of some technologies used by law enforcement agencies is given below: 1. Crime mapping During the last decade, computer crime mapping has become an important tool for law enforcement firms. Innovations in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and computer technology have corresponded with practical and theoretical advancements in crime investigation, analysis and prevention. Mapping software, desktop computers, and GIS now present mapping and analysis of data capacities beyond what was probable with mainframe desktop computers as lately as the early 90s. Crime mapping is an affordable and inexpensive technology for tiny and even controlled budget police sections. The advancements needed by community police departments want that these sections integrate a spatial, geographic, or local emphasis, and focus on the significance of incorporating crime mapping techniques into departmental analysis, management, and practices of enforcement. (Reichert, 2001) 2. Integration of Information Technology Information technology integration is as famous as crime mapping. Innovations in information technology assure privacy and information will be shared among all the key elements of the system of criminal justice, taking into account prosecutors, law enforcement, public and private defenders, corrections, federal courts, probation, parole, appellate courts, and state trial. A fully incorporated information system, though, needs cautious planning and organization among the agencies to make sure that technological faults do not take place; as Chief Justice Ronald M. George, California Supreme Court, puts it â€Å"Towel of Babel†. (Reichert, 2001) 3. Database for Fingerprints According to recent news, in Columbus, Ohio, Columbus Police can receive instant information about a suspect’s identity without having to go back to files and papers. With just a fast imprint of an individual’s two fingers on handheld equipment, now police can get access to all personal databases via the fingerprint database system. Police is quite contended with this new t echnology as it saves up time and energy to travel to the downtown booking station. Naturally, it is used to check the right identity of a person who does not a proper ID or have a fake one and uses a fake name. Columbia Police Department alone comprises of 250,000 entries. Any fingerprint which matches an identity gives person’s name, gender, date of birth and race. The cost of these devices have dropped drastically from $100 to $5 and they take good advantage of swiftly growing biometrics industry which

Sustainability and Competitive Advantage Article

Sustainability and Competitive Advantage - Article Example Stakeholders and executives are greatly worried about the impacts of sustainability efforts on their corporate bottom line. The evaluation criteria are based on a company’s business strategy developed to establish sustainability and a competitive advantage to the company. This report demonstrates what companies have done to capitalize on sustainability-driven transformations in consideration to the MIT Sloan Article by Berns et a; (2009) on Sustainability and Competitive Advantage. It seeks to analyze the kind of strategies that the companies have attempted to pursue in order to position themselves competitively in the future. In the examination of this, the study has based its examination on the Wal-Mart Stores Inc (Amann, 2011, pg.11). Wal-Mart Stores Inc. is among the companies in the retail sector that have demonstrated the achievement of sustainability in the competitive advantage over a long period of time. In this report, there is much focus on how Wal-Mart has maintained sustainability and achieved competitive advantage by providing good at lower prices and adopting a cost leadership strategy as suggested in the MIT Sloan Article by Berns et a; (2009) on Sustainability and Competitive Advantage. Wal-Mart is seen to take lead on environmental sustainability by offering environment-friendly products and investing in solar power plants in its various stores. The company has also encouraged recycling of various products. Their business strategy has helped in reduction of power consumption to a great extent and in the company’s future plans to go green (Bamford andWest, 2010, pg. 90). MIT Sloan Article by Bern’s et. al (2009) emphasizes on cost leadership strategy which is very helpful in businesses in achieving a competitive advantage in the market. Companies that seek to enhance their profile in sustainability should begin by undertaking self-evaluation. Sustainability, as discussed in the MIT Sloan Article, entails the development of a prà ©cis business strategy that seeks to maintain the business in a competitive margin and uphold its sustainability in their future.   

Nike SWOT Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Nike SWOT Analysis - Essay Example Introduction and Market Overview The global financial meltdown of 2008 has negatively affected retail business because it reduced the purchasing power of consumers and destroyed consumer confidence (Finch & Wood, 2009). Businesses have shrunk drastically all over the world due to the integration of global financial markets. Firms are finding it difficult to sell their products to consumers in these tough times. Even big names like Nike are worried about their sales and purchasing power of their clientele, although it did well as compared to others in the recession. The company was founded back in 1964 and since then it has grown tremendously. The company is the leading seller of athletic shoes and apparel in the world (Sage, 2008). In 2010 the company reported a profit of $1.9 billion and an operating income of $2.5 billion, but revenues have fallen to $19 billion (Nike Annual Report, 2010). This is a point of concern for the company because it means that sales are declining due to some reasons. Fall in sales can be because of the tough economic conditions of European and American markets. This downward trend can cause many problems for the company in future because competitors can take market share from the company. The main competitors of the company are Rebook, Puma, and Addidas. Nike sells sports equipment, apparel and footwear. The company alongside with its competitors uses celebrity endorsement and other marketing strategies to attract customers. The client base of Nike and all its competitors are more or less similar. Nike targets young people who are interested in sports. Competitors of Nike are also targeting the same population set. This is why marketing is used as a tool for differentiation by companies in the industry. The vision of the company is to produce equipment for athletes therefore aims of the marketing plan will compliment the overall strategy of the company. The aim of Nike should be to improve its sales in the next year by attracting more and more customers. Improvement of sales by 20 percent is the objective of the firm. The focus of the company will also be on the developing countries as it will attempt to position itself as a premium brand in the developing world. In t his report we will design a marketing plan for Nike so that the above mentioned aims and objectives can be achieved. We will conduct a SWOT analysis for the company and will also include marketing objectives and market segment in the plan. We will also elaborate how the plan will complement the overall strategic objectives of the company. Risk issues within the marketing plan will also be discussed alongside with the mitigations strategies. SWOT Analysis Strengths Nike is the number one footwear brand of the world therefore it enjoys a strong position in the market. The company use marketing constantly to remain the market leader

Older Population as a Vulnerable Group Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Older Population as a Vulnerable Group - Essay Example The research paper â€Å"Older Population as a Vulnerable Group† investigates the difficulties faced by older adults, who belong to the vulnerable group mainly because of their limited physical mobility, cognitive impairment, and weakened social networks. The explosive technological developments in the field of medicine over the last few decades have significantly improved health status of people, particularly in economically developed countries like the U.S and the UK. Those developments and innovations were capable of increasing the life expectancy of people, and this situation in turn resulted in a phenomenon called population ageing. The older population is a vulnerable group, and this group’s vulnerability is a combination of three factors like health status, cognitive ability, and social support. Older people are likely to be affected by issues like loneliness, stress, and depression. Therefore, they are increasingly exposed to deception and fraud. Population agei ng is a process where a country’s median age rises due to increasing life expectancy and/or decreasing birth rates. In economically developed countries like the UK and the U.S, rising life expectancy is the major cause leading to population ageing. Recently, even less economically developed countries have also improved their life expectancy and significantly contribute population ageing. Growing life expectancy is the prime cause of population ageing in the world except in 18 countries which are ‘demographic outliers’ according to the United Nations.... The Department of Health indicates that an individual over 85 is approximately three times more expensive to health care as compared to a person between the ages of 65 and 75 ("More than 10 million people..†). Although the UK government has framed extensive mechanisms to ensure rapid and quality care for the older population, the needs of a notable percent of aging people still go unnoticed. Causes of vulnerability The fast growth of the older population raises great challenges to the wellbeing of the old age people because they are exposed to various vulnerabilities. It is identified that older population is increasingly prone to vulnerabilities like exploitation, abuse, and negligence by others. Referring to the words of Kim and Geistfeld, older population constitutes a vulnerable group and they are â€Å"more susceptible to unscrupulous business practices than younger groups† ("What makes older adults vulnerable...). The authors continue that the older population ofte n becomes the target group for fraud because one can easily convince them. Scholars indicate that older individuals’ loneliness increases their vulnerability to fraudulent business transactions to a considerable extent. Psychological practitioners suggest that old age people are greatly in need of social interactions, and this is the reason why older consumers could be easily convinced by telemarketers. Majority of the older people have little market knowledge, and this weakness increases their susceptibility to fraud. It is awful to see that many of the old age people are not aware of the risk of losing ownership once payments are not made in time. Furthermore, they do not know whom they should contact in case

Project Recommendation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Project Recommendation - Essay Example The company has commenced investment in the project and lack of implementation may lead to substantial monetary losses. One way of dealing with uncertainty is employment of pretested technology. This may be a plus for the Project Stargazer as its research and development has been going on for a while. The return on investment determines the profitability of implementing the Project Stargazer through assessment of monetary implications of the funds and schedules. When the magnitude and timing of investment in the Project Stargazer is gauged and the timing of investment gains is directly proportional to the magnitude and timing of costs, a high return of investment is identified. This indicates that the gains associated with this project compare favorably to the implementation costs. This return of investment clearly shows that the project will not only be profitable, but also use the funds directed at it efficiently. The project will break-even when the total sales and revenues equalize the total expenses associated with the Project Stargazer. At this point, no losses or profits will be associated with the project, though with a high return on investment, the project is likely to break-even with ease. The product that is associated with this project is also innovative and has not been introduced in the market before. Developing and marketing such a product will be beneficial to the company as it will be developed for the first time. Success of the Project Stargazer might also pave the way for the company to market a variety of other products in the future. Project conception: The project Stargazer has already been researched and its development is already in progress. Previous analysis suggests that implementation of the project will benefit the company and chances of successful completion are high. Definition and planning: After the company approves the development of the project, a project plan outlining the

Question and answers Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Question and answers - Assignment Example ge is the natural kind of affection as that of parents towards their children in which they tend to put up with their children despite their shortcomings. The last type of love is the Philia love in which it creates for the application of conditions before reciprocating for the affection showed. Using the story of Ruth in the Old Testament, Ruth demonstrated agape love for her mother in law by staying by her side after her husband’s death meaning that this was unconditional. On the other hand, Naomi demonstrated philia love by allowing her daughter’s in law to move on with their lives ten years after their husbands had died because she felt that there nothing to offer them in gratitude (Williams & Denney, 2003). In contrast, Orpah opted to take up her mother in law’s offer to search for a better life that Naomi could no longer provide them hence demonstrating eros. Abraham portrayed eros love towards his wife Sarah despite her not being able to bear children for him in accordance with the promise that God gave to him. Although God allowed Satan to take away all of Job’s possessions but Job remained faithful to God. This demonstrated agape love in which Job did not seize to worship God because of the losses that Satan had forced on him making his love for God to be unconditional. On the other hand, the people that Job called friends beseeched Job to stop serving God because they said that God had abandoned him hence insinuating that they had eros love for God, which is a give and take way of portraying emotions. His wife also illustrated his eros love towards her from a sensual concept. God restored everything that Job had lost hence demonstrating that He rewarded his faithfulness even after giving the option of worshipping Satan inclining towards philia love. The second passage involves Abraham, where God ordered him to sacrifice his only son as an act of faith and his portrayal of his unconditional love agape. Further, God demonstrated philia love in

Anglo-American Special Relationship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Anglo-American Special Relationship - Essay Example Since Britain joined the then European Community in 1973, it has had an uneasy ride with its European partners. The relations have often been turbulentï‚ § Since Britain joined the then European Community in 1973, it has had an uneasy ride with its European partners. The relations have often been turbulentThe UK’s membership in the European Union (EU) that have a self-proclaimed goal of â€Å"ever closer union† was suggested by Rachman (2001) is a question that mattered more in London than in Washington. The US also have special relations among other countries such as Israel, Canada, Mexico (Wright, 2002), Japan and, also the EU.  Economically, there was a difficulty in totally integrating in to the European Union despite the low economic growth in Britain due to the high value of the pound making Britons believe that economy is doing well even while outside the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU).   The UK shares 15.3 percent of export to the US while it has considerable larger export to the EU members Germany, France, Ireland, Netherlands, Belgium, Spain and Italy at around 50 percent. UK also lists Germany, France, Netherlands, Belgium, China, and Italy along with US (9.3 percent) as its leading import partners.While the US lists Canada, Mexico, Japan, China, along with UK (4.4 percent) as its export partners, it has only Canada, China, Mexico, Japan and Germany as its leading import partners.The British have had their national sovereignty slowly eroded by EU laws and regulations.   While mainland Europe such as Germany rates 43.6 to 56.6 percent and France's rate is 41.6 percent, the UK taxes only about 20 percent considered the lowest in the European Community (Expatica, 2005) making Britons Euro-sceptic as former president of Germany's Central Bank announced "A European currency will lead to member nations transferring their sovereignty over financial and wage policy, as well as in monetary affairs. It is an illusion to think that states can hold on to autonomy over

William Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet Essay Example for Free

William Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet Essay â€Å"Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?† Many people all over the world have heard the expression from William Shakespeare’s play, Romeo and Juliet. The tragedy is about two star crossed lovers who are born into two different families, Juliet’s family, the Capulets and Romeo’s family, the Montague’s. The families have an ancient grudge. Due to this family feud, many drastic events take place involving deceit, sorrow, sacrifice and pain, resulting in the death of both Romeo and Juliet, along with their love. Romeo and Juliet is full of situations and themes to which students are able to relate: friendship, betrayal, feuds, conflict with parents, young love, religion, adolescent hormones, a lack of perspective, desperation, and conflicting loyalties. In this essay, several themes will be connected to Romeo and Juliet using music and cinema, as well as to my life and situations that occur in life or the world. One of the reoccurring themes in Romeo and Juliet is love. The concept of love is portrayed in various parts of the play. The play actually focuses on love and emphasizes how two, innocent lovers endure the pain they go through, what they have to sacrifice and what they do just to keep themselves together. Many references to Romeo and Juliet appear in movies, pop songs, and art frequently. Taylor Swift refers to the play in her hit song, â€Å"Love Story.† Love Story is a song based upon love, and, reflects a story about how two people meet and fall deeply in love which also connects to the theme of family feuding. However, the girl’s father does not approve of the boy and warns the two to keep a steady distance from each other. In Swifts, Love Story†, line (8) says: Little did I know that you were Romeo, you were throwing pebbles and my daddy said, Stay away from Juliet. Based on this piece of the song, it can be related to Juliet’s father warning Romeo to stay away from his daughter and that he would never allow her to be with him. Another example is in lyrics, 17-20 which say: â€Å"So I sneak out to the garden to see you, we keep quiet cause were dead if they knew, so close your eyes, escape this town for a little while.† This line of the song can be strongly connected with the family feud between the Capulets and Montagues. Romeo and Juliet loved each other dearly; however, their families had powerful hate for one another. Therefore, in order for the two lovers  to keep contact with each other, they had to sneak out and meet in various places due to their undeniable love, such as the balcony, Friar Lawrence’s cell, etc. However, the ending of the song is different with the ending of the play. The ending of the song is one that is full of happiness as opposed to the ending of the play which has a melancholy ending. James Cameron’s hit movie, Titanic, also depicts the love two people have for each other and what they endure through it. Titanic is a 1997 American, epic, romantic, disastrous film between a man and woman of different social classes who fall in love aboard the ship during its ill-fated maiden voyage. Even though, Titanic is an example of melodrama and Romeo and Juliet is an example of dramatic literature, they both connect with one another according to the theme of love, separation, and family feuds. In Titanic, Rose and Jack withstand forbidden/ socially unacceptable love. Rose Bukater is a wealthy woman and comes from a family with upper class. On the other hand, Jack Dawson is a poor man, who does not have much to offer to Rose. Therefore, Rose’s mother forbids her to stop meeting Jack since they will never be of the same kind. This can be connected to the family feud of Romeo and Juliet, between the Montagues and Capulets as they also forbid their son and daughter from seeing each other. Another example of how Titanic ties in with the theme of parting in Romeo and Juliet is when both couples (Rose and Jack and Romeo and Juliet) are separated from one another for a short period of time by fate or circumstances beyond their control. In Romeo and Juliet, Romeo is banished from Verona for killing Tybalt, Juliet’s cousin. On the other hand, in Titanic, Jack is framed as a thief for â€Å"stealing† a diamond necklace that belonged to Rose. Due to this, Jack was forbidden to meet with Rose again, who were separated for some time. Shakespeare’s, Romeo and Juliet, relates to the youth of today or situations that occur presently, in various ways. People fall in love every day; there are still families who dislike and argue over each other. Many people are forbidden from seeing someone that is close to them but they still meet secretly, just like Romeo and Juliet. Students whose families are not feuding with another can relate to having a conflict of interests with  their parents. For example, my best friend’s aunt, Tami, fell deeply in love with a man her father strongly disapproved of. Therefore, she secretly meets him without anyone knowing. In conclusion, the play, Romeo and Juliet demonstrates many themes that are portrayed throughout different parts of the play. Connections with different pieces of work that deal with music and films can be made clearly. Love Story, by Taylor Swift and James Cameron’s, Titanic, beautifully describes examples about the storyline of Romeo and Juliet. Romeo and Juliet can be correlated with situations in life today, that teach us about love and mistakes some people make.

Selling a product Essay Example for Free

Selling a product Essay The slogan is all part of the brand package for the meddeteranian cruise advert, and it combines with the images created with the use of the swan and Helen of Troy: Discoveries of a Lifetime; the elegent tone and formal vocabulary used combine with the images of the swan and Helen; there is dignity in the seriousness in the vocabulary, but it also insites a sense of adventure and excitement which would make a potential buyer keen to go on a cruise and see the amazing discoveries; it also conveys the uniqueness of the experiences you will have on a Swan Hellenic cruise. It makes the expereinces you will have on a Swan Hellenic cruise seem special, as well as unique, and makes it seem as if that if you turn down the chance to go on a cruise, you will never have the chance again. Once again, however, the Scottish Highlands advert lacks a concrete slogan. Because it doesnt promote any perticular company, and only a product (the Highlands themselves), there is no company slogan to use; really, it has more of a tag; the visitscotland web address; the advert is used to draw people in with its imagery before directing the reader to a resource for more information, rather than selling a product directly to the reader. The most striking contrast between the two adverts is the use of text and tone. The cruise advert uses a personal tone in the style of a postcard (together with a font which looks as if it is handwritten) to give the advert the style ofa one on one conversation between the reader and a friend; the personal style makes the dvert seem as if it has been purposefuly created for the reader and thus makes it seem more relevent to them. The description of the area is also personal rather than it shines like a beacon in the sun, which would be used ina formal desprition, the phrase it shone like a beacon in the sun is used to give the text the feeling of it being a persons despription, enhancing the personal feel. The text is of a relevent size to make it seem legitimately handwritten (and is spaced to achieve the same effect), but it is hugh up enough on the pafge for the glorious, sprawling and idyllic medeterranian scene to be seen in full. The use of we in the opening paragraph affirms the audience the product is aimed at; couples or groups, and also suggestes a shared experience, which the whole party enjoyed; the use of the phrase never knew existed not only enforces the uniqueness of the cruises but also suggest that you will learn and be entralled in the process by going on the cruise. The text reffering to the monks being hoisted up in a basket gives the text even more of a personal feel because it comes accros as a private joke; the final use of humour does what the phrase about the monks does and also makes the reader laugh, hopng to usethe humour to help them remember the advert. The body of text underneath the picture is used to push the cruises themselves. Within the first sentence, you have all the positives of a Swan Hellenic cruise laid out for you with a rheotorical question on the end to make you think about them all; the text also speaks directly to the target audience (couples or groups who want to get away from modern life) with the promise of places off the beaten track and also promises once again that you will learn whilst on the cruise. Having considered the rheotoricalquestion, the reader is confronted with still more of the cruises virtues Havinggiven the reader all the virtues of a cruise with Swan Hellenic in the firsttwo sentances, the text then details how to obtain them all in a plethora of ways, all guaranteed to be easy, quick, effective and hair-tearing free; the use of the phrase friendly team are waiting to assist you conjures up an office full of happy people who will wait for a time convinient to you to assist you in choosing a perfect holiday; another virtue, and only in the third sentence.  Where as the Swan Helenic advert uses an extensive amount of text, the Scottish Highlands advert uses short, snappy and witty (slightly sarcastic) phrases to give it a chic, modern air. The text stands out because of its position on the page and the sentences lead sraight on into each other. The other body of text is small and secreted away so as not to detract from the all-important picture; the phrase make your own entertainment makes use of innuendo and gives a certain allure to coming to the coming to the Scottish Highlands; the useof aquestion directly followed by an answer (Want to come? Go online.) points a reader where to go without giving him or her time to think; its almost s if he or she as nochoice. Those last two sentences are also short and snappy, as is the tag visitscotland.com, which is is easy to remember andstresses that you shoud visit Scotland; the use of an incomplete andshort address rather than a longwinded one also keeps up the modern theme (by missing off the http:// and www. sections of the website address and using something catchy like visitscotland.com and not something like uktourism.co.uk/scotland/highlands/visit_scotland.html the shot and snappy nature of the text is kept going and it is also a stylish ddress.). In conclusion, this study has shown how two adverts selling he same product (holidays) and aimed at a simmilar demographic (high-earning Times readers) can be vastly different. Whilst the Swan Hellenic advert relies on showcasing and using a built up image of the Medetteranian and the reputation of PO cruises the Scottish Highlands advert tries relentlessly to dispelpreconceptions about the Scottish Highlands through the use of modern colours, the internet, short, snappy phrases and a modern sense of humour. In my opinion, the Swan Hellenic is more successful becauseit has a built up image to rely on and fall back on and so the product is easier to sell throgh visual showcasing and the use of language techniques (,etaphor in like a beacon in the sun rheotorical questions), and the conotations of the swan and Helen of Troy to sell its product.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in Subconventional War

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in Subconventional War CHAPTER- I INTRODUCTION 1. Many military strategists and theorists have concluded, based on recent history, the nature of future wars will be limited to regional and intrastate conflicts. Large interstate wars such as World Wars One and Two and the Persian Gulf War are not likely to be the wars of the future. UAVs are increasingly standard features of the modern combat theaters and Low Intensity Conflict zones where ISR missions may need to be carried out. Todays ISR missions are sophisticated operations. Covert or overt, they are executed using traditional techniques and modern technology – with expensive equipment and infrastructures often requiring highly skilled operators. Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPVs)/Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are small unmanned aircraft which came into being as mans quest for newer and better tools of warfare. 2. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) will play a key role in dealing with low intensity conflicts abetted by both internal elements and unfriendly neighbours. Indias great neighbours not being really friendly be it Pakistan or China. Avoiding all risk to human life or manned search aircraft operating in hostile territory, poor weather or hazardous environments, UAVs fitted with sensors can be used to safely perform the Search-Locate-Identify elements of importance in a missions. Unmanned (or uninhabited) aerial vehicles (UAVs) are methodically becoming a central theme in the mosaic of Air Force systems and capability. The questions regarding employment of UAVs are not so much about if they should be developed but how to integrate them into Air Force doctrine and organizations. The Study identified reconnaissance UAVs as one of the high leverage systems of the future. Accordingly, the Air Force has made a concerted effort to develop UAVs and sensor technologies with a particular emphasi s on intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) applications. This paper addresses considerations for improving the future application of UAVs for the ISR mission and their employment in LICO across our vast borders. Specifically, this research illustrates that UAVs in concert with manned and space assets addresses several Air Force ISR needs. Furthermore, the Air Force should seize the opportunity to leverage the rapid advances in sensor and information technology to increase the capability of UAVs to perform ISR while also performing other vital air power missions. 3. Used as drones in the First World War, RPVs since then have been used as targets for artillery guns, missiles and piloted aircraft or to bring exposed film of hostile territory. With advanced technology, RPVs are now being so designed so as to carry payloads for varied purposes and missions, such as for surveillance (TV cameras, Infra Red (IR) Imagers, sensors) or equipment for electronic counter measures (radar jammers, flares or chaff) or strictly for employment as weapon platforms. 4. A number of countries are today engaged in RPV development projects, prominent amongst these being UK, USA, France and Israel. It has been stated that the RPVs will be able to take on a number of missions and assignments, which are currently being performed by manned aircraft. As tactical aircraft are too few and too expensive to launch for random searches for targets in a battle area, manned reconnaissance (recce) in particular is being reduced in emphasis in favour of RPVs, which are cheaper. The comparative cost of a lost RPV vis-Ã  -vis a manned aircraft with a trained pilot is in itself a sufficient and good enough reason for undertaking such a research and development. 5. RPV can provide close recce of troops deployed in depth which would otherwise have to be undertaken by fighter aircraft, perform spotting functions for incoming munitions and designate as well as destroy targets, Jam enemys electronic equipment, act as radio relay stations and provide real-time intelligence. Further, by penetrating an enemys territory they alert electronic systems and this leads to their early detection. RPVs are therefore about to become an invaluable accretion for providing real-time, over the battlefield surveillance capability. But for all its virtues it is still being debated as to whether an RPV will be able to stand and fight alone or would it only compliment an air force. 6. Of the principles of war defined by Clausewitz the element of surprise has probably made the greatest contribution to success. In the military context therefore the denial of surprise to a potential aggressor is paramount. Equally the acquisition of intelligence is a vital factor in any operational venture. From the very earliest days of aviation the foresighted became aware of the use of aerial platforms for reconnaissance tasks. This has been true throughout the history of warfare. The Second World War saw a quantum leap in reconnaissance from the third dimension. In the Arab Israel wars of 1967 and 1973 the use of aerial reconnaissance enabled Israel dramatically to demonstrate the use of force multiplication through intelligence gained. Air reconnaissance has always been important to the success in war. It is the UAV whose time has come in ensuring that aerial reconnaissance continues to give intelligence in a high intensity air defence scenario. They have proved their worth i n reconnaissance and surveillance. 7. In an age of shrinking defence budgets, expensive manned aircraft and high cost of aircrew training most of the modern armed forces around the world are realising the need to employ RPVs for missions in the dense hostile Air Defence (AD) environment. Missions which were considered extremely dangerous and yet important can now be undertaken by RPVs with relative impunity. Owing to their small radar, IR signature and the ability to spoof the enemy, RPVs can give vital real time data about the enemy to commanders on the ground. RPVs if employed intelligently can make a significant contribution by keeping manned aircraft out of the hostile AD threats while providing real time information and at the same time denying the same by effective electronic warfare to the decision makers in a conflict between adversaries. Statement of the Problem 8. To study and evaluate the efficacy of employing UAVs in ISR role in sub-conventional warfare in the Indian context with special reference to counter terrorist operation across our vast borders. Justification of the Study 9. The UAV has shown, in counter-insurgency and in anti-terrorist operations as much as in war, the critical importance of an eye in the sky. UAV can be effectively employed in gathering the intelligence in terrorist training camps, their infiltration routes etc, to build an effective databank for use in the future. The Israel Army has deployed a new miniature unmanned aerial vehicle in counter-insurgency operations over the West Bank. The Israeli army has launched operations of the Skylark tactical UAV for counter-insurgency missions in the northern West Bank. Skylark began flying missions in late 2005 in what marked the first operational deployment of the new UAV. The MQ-1 Predator, armed with the AGM-114 Hellfire missile continues to be one of the US militarys most requested systems, assisting in the execution of the global war on terror by finding, fixing, tracking, targeting, engaging, and assessing suspected terrorist locations. 10. Historically unmanned aircrafts have been employed successfully in number of conventional operations. Their relatively low cost and the modest political embarrassment likely to be caused by their loss, seems to make them irreplaceable especially in a LICO environment where the enemy is difficult to identify and the political compulsions are high. UAVs can facilitate employment of aircraft, long-range guns and missiles by accurate target acquisition.. UAVs hold out a promise of providing a range of ISR and other support missions. Some of these are battlefield reconnaissance and surveillance, fire control and direction, communication and radar suppression. This study has been prompted in being able to identify and analyse the technical and tactical requirements of a UAV for aerial reconnaissance and to suggest the principle of employment for the task in sub conventional war.. 11. The day of the UAV as a natural ingredient of military thinking is much nearer than it was a decade ago, but there is still a need for clearer and more widespread understanding of what the UAV can be used to do as a tool for reconnaissance in a sub-conventional warfare which is more likely to be faced by our country in the future. Hypothesis 12. UAVs have been proposed for several mission areas including ISR, communications, and weapons delivery. The UAVs were used extensively in recent war. Direction is needed to ensure these maturing UAVs are used in the most effective way. The on-going revolution in sensor technology that will improve the UAVs ability to perform ISR missions now conducted by high-value, manned assets. 13. Todays ISR missions are sophisticated operations. Covert or overt, they are executed using traditional techniques and modern technology – with expensive equipment and infrastructures often requiring highly skilled operators. The requirement for information is likely to keep increasing as warfare becomes more oriented towards reconnaissance-strike. In future scenarios, no one system is going to be able t o meet all data collection requirements. Manned aircraft will not be available for all the intelligence needs of the warfighter. Satellite systems also have limitations that will prevent them from being the sole suppliers of information. The capabilities of UAVs make them ideally suited to fill the increasing void between intelligence requirements and existing data collection capability. Scope 14. The scope of this dissertation is to go into the evolution of UAVs, development and employment of UAV in recent wars. It will concentrate on the ISR aspects while identifying the characteristics/requirements of a UAV in a sub-conventional war. As UAVs being one of the high leverage systems of the future, the Air Force has to make a concerted effort to procure UAVs and sensor technologies with a particular emphasis on intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) applications. This paper addresses considerations for improving the future application of UAVs for the ISR mission. Furthermore, the Air Force should seize the opportunity to leverage the rapid advances in sensor and information technology to increase the capability of UAVs to perform ISR while also performing other vital air power missions. 15. The scope of this dissertation is to critically analyse the efficacy of employment of UAVs in Armed role in sub-conventional environment which is more likely to be faced by India in future. It aims to study the application of UAV in LICO, study the advantages of employing UAVs in LICO in ISR role and suggest the philosophy for employment of UAVs in LICO in the ISR role. Methods of Data Collection 16. The information in this dissertation has been collected from the reference material available in the DSSC Library and from the Internet. The bibliography of the sources is appended at the end of the text. Organisation of the Dissertation 17. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I. Introduction. (b) Chapter II . Evolution of UAVs. (c) Chapter III . Classification of UAVs. (d) Chapter IV . Characteristics of UAVs. (e) Chapter V . Importance of UAVs and ISR Sensors. (f) Chapter VI . Principles of employment of the UAV for aerial reconnaissance. (g) Chapter VII . Low intensity conflict operations. (h) Chapter VIII. Employment philosophy for UAVs in sub conventional warfare. (j) Chapter IX . Conclusion CHAPTER II EVOLUTION OF UAVs UAV technology is a vast field with wide and enough scope for exploration to produce a new and challenging tool of warfare VK Madhok Battlefields of The Early 21st Century. History of Evolution of UAVs/RPVs 1. Unmanned aircraft have a history as long as that of aviation itself. Even before the First World War a French artillery officer, Rene Lorin had proposed the use of flying bombs to attack distant targets. This aircraft he suggested could be stabilized in flight by a combination of gyroscopes and barometer, guided along the track by radio signal from an accompanying piloted aircraft propelled by a pulse jet or ram jet engine to hit the target. 2. The drones/RPV idea actually goes back to the technology of the First World War. The grandparents of todays unmanned vehicles were the Kettering bug and Sperry Aerial Torpedo used in 1917 and 1918. They were winged carts on wheels with engines that somehow managed to lift them into the air after a fast start on a pair of rails. Though they flew, they left much to be desired in terms of sophistication and were not useful as an accurate, winged bomb. More successful, however was the effort that lasted from 1928 to 1932 in which the Curtis Robin aircraft was turned into a working drone. Then, in the late 1930s there was a rush of military interest in remotely controlled vehicles, which led to a raft of special weapons including a second Bug, essentially a surface to surface buzz bomb, and the Bat, a radio controlled glide Bomb. Out of this pack came the first truly usable weapon: the crude but legal GB 1, which was a 2000 bomb with plywood wings and rudders and a radio control packag e. These were dropped from B-17s and visually guided by bombardiers to their target. In 1943, 108 GB-1s were dropped on cologne causing heavy damage. Later in the war came the GB-4 Robin, the first television guided weapon and Q-2 developed by Ryan Aeronautical Company (now Teledyne–Ryan) in 1946 from which have developed most of todays modern RPVs/UAVs. 3. In the United States, the UAV has normally been associated with the reconnaissance mission and designed to be a recoverable asset for multiple flight operations. The remotely piloted vehicles (RPV) of the early 1960s were developed in response to the perceived vulnerability of the U-2 reconnaissance aircraft, which had been downed over the Soviet Union in 1960 and again over Cuba in 1962.Red Wagon was the code name for a 1960 project by Ryan Aeronautical Company to demonstrate how its drones could be used for unmanned, remotely guided photographic reconnaissance missions. As early as 1965, modified Ryan Firebee drones were used to overfly China with some losses experienced. Vietnam War 4. The best known UAV operations were those conducted by the United States Air Force during the Vietnam War. Ryan BQM-34 (Ryan designation: Type 147) Lightning Bug drones were deployed to the theater in 1964.[iii] . In addition to the reconnaissance role, Teledyne Ryan also experimented with lethal versions of the BQM-34 drone. In 1971 and 1972, drones were armed with Maverick missiles or electro-optically guided bombs (Stubby Hobo) in an attempt to develop an unmanned defense suppression aircraft to be flown in conjunction with manned strike aircraft. 5. The Vietnam War was notable in two regards with respect to unmanned aircraft. It was the first war in which reconnaissance UAV were employed and it was notable for the ubiquity of the drones which was use throughout the war. An average of one mission was flown each day during this lengthy war. Employment in Recent Conflicts 6. Yom Kippur – 73 . It was in 1973, that the Israelis effectively used the RPV for reconnaissance and surveillance. The main unmanned aircraft were Mastiff, Scout and the Pioneer. These could also be used for Electronic Warfare. The valuable information gained from these sorties, besides the fire drawn from Arab SAMs which increased the vulnerability of the Air Defence systems found the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle enjoying a pivotal role in the Israeli success. 7. Bekka Valley – 1982. The Israelis once again explored the use of unmanned aircraft during air operations. Besides surveillance and intelligence gathering drones over the Syrian air space were able to gauge reactions of the air defence systems and cater for suitable counter measure. During the Israeli attack, it is reported that RPVs were used to monitor runway activity, activate Syrian fire control radars so that behind the first wave of decoy aircraft, Israeli aircraft could launch their anti, radiation missiles for neutralization of the radars. A large degree of success can be attributed to the employment of this platform wherein the Syrian had losses of 19 SAM batteries and 86 combat aircraft for the corresponding loss of only a solitary Israeli aircraft. The UAVs used were Teledyne, Scout, Mastiff, Samson and Delilah. It was therefore seen that in a dense AD environment, the use of unmanned aircraft would provide rich dividends. 8. The types of RPVs used were the Teledyne BQM-34, Scout, Mastiff, Samson and Delilah. During the operation certain important lessons were learnt, namely:- (a) Training under operational condition is essential for success of operations. (b) Instead of an all-purpose RPV, a family of RPVs with specific task related capability would be more suitable. (c) Simulation of fighter aircraft with use of corner reflector on RPV could lend an element of surprise. (d) The RPVs proved to be a major force multiplier. (e) The low radar, IR, acoustic and optical signature reduced its vulnerability to ground fire and electronic counter measures. (f) The Bekaa Valley operation proved that RPVs are a cost effective means of conducting reconnaissance, electronic warfare and intelligence gathering. (g) It is an ideal platform for employment in a dense AD environment of a modern TBA. (h) The operations re-emphasized the worlds faith in the utility of RPVs in a modern battle. Gulf War 1991 9. UAVs were used extensively by the US in the Gulf War. The Israeli built Pioneer UAV flew 530 missions into Iraqi territory. The other types of UAVs which were used by the US were the BAI-Exdrone and the French Alpilles-MART. Besides the conventional uses of reconnaissance, surveillance, target acquisition and Arty fire control, UAVs were used innovatively for pre-ingress route reconnaissance of Apache AH-64 helicopters, individual chemical agent detection (ICAD) and command, control, communication and intelligence functions The US Navy used UAVs for detection of enemy vessels, detection of Silkworm anti-shipping missile sites, mine detection and naval gunfire direction. The Multi National Forces employed UAVs like the Pioneer, Pointer, Midge, Mart and the Exdrone for reconnaissance, surveillance and battle damage assessment. The US Marine Corps extensive use of UAVs offset the Armys shortfall in aircraft-based reconnaissance. (a) Pioneer . Six Pioneer units each equipped with five UAVs were deployed in the theatre, three with the US Marines, one with US army and one each on USS Missouri and USS Wisconsin. It was used round-the- clock, using TV or (forward looking infra-red) FLIR sensors, for (reconnaissance, intelligence, surveillance and target acquisition (RISTA). The US Navy used it to search for Silkworm sites, air defence arty guns; and command and control bunkers. The US Marines used them for real-time targeting with attack aircraft. Pioneers flew 307 sorties in the campaign logging 1011 hours. Of these, seven were lost two to AD arty and five to non-combat reasons, and 26 were damaged of which 13 were repaired in theater and re-used. Pioneer, already a veteran of activity in the Gulf, reiterated its value, both from the decks of the battleships of USS Missouri and Wisconsin and with the ground forces. One Pioneer achieved a bizarre first for UAVs when a group of Iraqi soldiers, seeing their bunker under observat ion from the circling craft, emerged waving white flags. (b) Pointer . Pointer is a low cost, hand launched and battery operated RPV that is equipped with a TV camera. Weighing only 8 pounds, its use was limited due to strong winds. Nonetheless, pointer was used during the early morning and late afternoons when winds were light. It was often used for rear area security, checking for foot prints in the sand that had not been there the night before. It was also sometimes used to scout roads before vehicles moved down them. (c) F-47A Exdrones . These were deployed during the Gulf War in the surveillance role, carrying miniature colour TV cameras and microwave video transmitters. Amongst other achievements, it detected that Iraqi forces had abandoned their defences in Kuwait, allowing the US Marines to advance more than a day earlier than what had been planned. This was also used in electronic warfare roles such as jamming and communication interception. 10. Some of the important lessons learnt from Gulf War are:- (a) Diverse family of RPVs are required rather than one all-purpose model like Pioneer with US. (b) Smaller, target-spotting tactical RPVs would be easier to operate near the front lines. (c) Larger, long-endurance unmanned vehicles could take off from behind the battle field and yet patrol large strategic areas. (d) Small numbers of low observable RPVs could carry out recce missions with high chance of survival. 11. Bosnian Conflict . The NATO forces in Bosnia used the Tier-2 Predator to monitor the enforcement of cease-fire. Specific tasks included detection of movement of ammunition at night and detection of tampering of mass graves by Bosnian Serbs at night. CHAPTER II I CLASSIFICTION OF UAV Knowledge of an enemys dispositions and movements has always been a key to success in war John WR Taylor, David Mondey Spies in the Sky. 1. Classification of UAVs may be based on important attributes such as range, endurance, flight altitude and launch or recovery methods. Broadly UAVs can be classified into tactical and strategic categories. A further sub division may also include offensive UAVs and Decoys. 2. Relevance. It is important that we understand the broad classification of the UAV tree as it would thereafter be easy to associate roles that can be assigned to the UAV in context of tasks which manned aircraft are required to perform. For any comparison with the manned aircraft, a generic understanding enables us to be able to oversee the debate between manned aircraft vis a vis manned aircraft from an overall objective and broader perspective. 3. Tactical UAV: (a) Micro UAV . Mainly useful for reconnaissance, surveillance and target acquisition (RSTA), sampling NBC and Electronic Warfare (EW), the range is limited to 10 kms with endurance of less than an hour and max altitude of 250 metres. (b) Mini UAV . Mostly for civil use and similar to micro UAV except that the endurance is greater upto two hours. (c) Close Range UAV . With a range of 10 to 30 Kms, and endurance of 2-4 hrs, ceiling of 3000 meters, this group is used for RSTA, arty correction and mine detection. (d) Short Range UAV . Range of 30-70 Km and an endurance of 3 to 6 hrs, This could also be employed for NBC sampling and post strike damage assessment. (e) Medium Range UAV . The range is enhanced up to 70-200 kms with endurance of 6-10 hr and the altitude band from 3000-5000 metres. This is used for communication relays also. (f) Low Altitude Deep Penetration UAV . The main feature is its ability to escape enemy radar cover. It has an endurance of up to an hour with a range of beyond 250 Km and ceiling limits of 9000 m. This is mainly armed to provide commanders the capability to look deep into enemy territory. (g) Long Range UAV. With a range of up to 1000 kms and endurance of 6-13 hrs, the UAV is mainly employed on RSTA, Post strike damage assessment and communications relays. (h) Endurance UAVs. As the name suggests, it has the ability to operate upto 24 hrs and ranges greater than 500 kms. Utilized for RSTA, post strike damage assessment, relay, Electronic Warfare and NBC sampling. 4. Strategic UAV (a) Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE). The striking feature is that it can be used for weapons delivery. Operating in a range of 500-700 Kms from 234-48 hrs, it can also be used in tactical roles upto a ceiling from 5000 to 8000 metres. (b) High Altitude Long Endurance . Operating in the 15000 – 20000 metres band, it can be utilized as a missile launch vehicle. It operates for ranges upto 6000 kms. 5. Offensive UAV. This category caters for weapons which are anti-tank/vehicle, anti-radar or antiship. 6. Decoys . Certain aerial and naval decoys with endurance ranging from a few minutes to several hours, these may be launched via canisters, rockets or air launched. 22. Sensor Systems . The sensor systems are required for the various modes of reconnaissance which can be carried out by the UAV. These will be discussed in detail further in this paper. The various modes of reconnaissance are:- (a) Photographic Reconnaissance . The main sensor for photographic reconnaissance is the camera. The various types of camera systems for photographic reconnaissance are:- (i) Vertical Photograph Cameras. (ii) Oblique Photograph Cameras. (iii) Pin point Photograph Cameras. (iv) Split Vertical Photograph Cameras. (v) Trimetrogon. (vi) Multi-Camera Fan. (vii) Panoramic. (viii) Long Range Oblique Photography and Long Range Aerial Photography. (ix) Sonne Strip Photography. (x) IR Camera. (b) Infra- red Reconnaissance . The infra-red spectrum is used in reconnaissance in two distinct forms. The reflective portion of the infra-red is made use of in infra-red photography. The emissive portion of the infra-red is used in reconnaissance with the aid of appropriate sensors by a process called thermal imaging. This mode of reconnaissance uses emissive infra-red radiations and employs thermal detectors that transform infra-red radiation into detectable electrical signals. The output electrical voltage is recorded either on a magnetic tape for digital analysis by computer or on a film. The main types of infra-red reconnaissance systems which can be used by the UAV are:- (i) Infra-red Line Scan. (ii) Forward Looking Infra-Red (FLIR). (c ) Reconnaissance by Electronic Means . Reconnaissance by electronic means involves the use of radar and TV i.e. they need microwave sensors and light sensors. The two main types of reconnaissance by electronic means are thus radar reconnaissance and TV reconnaissance. 7. There is today a very clear direction of evolving UAV for specific purposes. Much like manned aircraft which have specified roles such as Air Defence, Air Interdiction and so on. Specialization is the buzz word in the UAV family wherein by changing payloads different functions can be performed. The broad classification above is likely to undergo changes in the future where specific functional UAVs would be listed. CHAPTER I V CHARACTERISTICS OF UAV Knowledge of an enemys dispositions and movements has always been a key to success in war John WR Taylor, David Mondey Spies in the Sky. UAV And Manned Aircraft A Comparison 1. Cost (a) Cost of Aircraft . The high cost of current generation fighter aircraft is a cause for concern to air force planners the world over. What is worse is their unit cost is continuing to escalate inexorably. A few examples will corroborate the fact. At 1985 prices, USAF aircraft like the P-51 Mustang of 1944 would have cost $ 0.5 million; the F- 100 Super Sabre of 1954 would be a little over $ 2 million; the F-4 Phantom of 1962 would be $ 6 million; while the F-15 Eagle of 1974 would cost $ 25 million. Similarly in the UK, the Harrier GR. 1 of 1970 costs four times as much as the Hunter fighter of the fifties and the Hawk training aircraft costs one and a half times as much as its predecessor the Gnat. In our own air force, the Mirage 2000 cost Rs 24 crores a piece when it was inducted in the Indian Airforce in 1985, while today it is in excess of 120 crores. (b) Cost of In-service Support . It is not just the unit capital cost of aircraft that is rising this way, so is the cost of in-service support. As a rough rule of thumb, the cost of in-service support for an aircraft is about twice the production cost. Statistics from Tactical Air Command of the USAF show that the cost of replenishment spare parts during the in-service life an F-4G aircraft is $ 3.5 million and for an F-15A, it is $ 10.7 million, while the depot maintenance costs for the same aircraft are $ 7.7 million and $ 5.8 million respectively. The total in-service operational and support costs for one aircraft including all items such as fuel, pay for unit personnel, pay for indirect support personnel, support equipment and so on, work out to $ 66.4 million and $ 64.2 million respectively for the two types. (c ) Personnel Costs . The cost of personnel to operate, service and support the aircraft are also high. Combat fighters in the USAF inventory need an average of 17 maintenance specialists for each machine, and a detachment of 24 F-15s for a 30 day period calls for 621 maintenance specialist in 22 different trades, together with 370 tons of equipment. The aircrew are also an expensive asset and their training costs are rising sharply. For example, it costs the RAF a little over $ 5 million at 1987 prices to train a pilot of a fast jet aircraft like the Harrier or a Tornado. (d) Cost of the Training Organization . The ratio of training aircraft to combat aircraft has always been high in any modern air force. For example in the RAF in 1987, there were 758 combat aircraft as compared to 833 in training units (including operational conversion units). It implies that higher the number of combat aircraft in any air force, the number of training aircraft would increase in a higher if not similar proportion. (e) Cost of UAVs versus Aircraft . (i) Mini UAVs . UAVs require neither crew nor crew supporting systems. Therefore, they are bound to be simple, smaller and thus a great deal cheaper than their manned counterparts. For example the unit cost of a Pointer RPV is $10,000. On the other hand the cost of Mig 21, which is used for TAC-R in the Indian Air Force, is $ 1 million. Now if we include the costs of in-service support, personnel costs and the cost of training Organization, the cost balance tips heavily in favor of UAVs. This also means that for same investment, we can have more UAVs and the sheer weight of numbers should be able to make up for whatever deficiencies which result from the absence of a crew. (ii) HALE . Though there are UAVs like the Condor HALE whose unit cost is $ 20 million (at 1993 prices), it would be more appropriate to compare them with satellites; and aircraft like the SR-71, U-2 and Mig 25, due to their role and capability. Then their cost-effectiveness can scarcely be in doubt. (iii) Mission C osts . A comparison of the mission costs of a UAV and an equivalent aircraft for the same role will further corroborate the economy of UAVs. 2. Mobility . (a) Tactical . High mobility and reach are two characteristics of air power which can be exploited in a variety of ways, such as to concentrate for effect or to disperse for survival. It is in these fields that UAVs have a major disadvantage vis-Ã  -vis manned aircraft, since they cannot easily transfer their effort between bases. They need to be transported from one operating site to another whereas a Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in Subconventional War Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in Subconventional War CHAPTER- I INTRODUCTION 1. Many military strategists and theorists have concluded, based on recent history, the nature of future wars will be limited to regional and intrastate conflicts. Large interstate wars such as World Wars One and Two and the Persian Gulf War are not likely to be the wars of the future. UAVs are increasingly standard features of the modern combat theaters and Low Intensity Conflict zones where ISR missions may need to be carried out. Todays ISR missions are sophisticated operations. Covert or overt, they are executed using traditional techniques and modern technology – with expensive equipment and infrastructures often requiring highly skilled operators. Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPVs)/Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are small unmanned aircraft which came into being as mans quest for newer and better tools of warfare. 2. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) will play a key role in dealing with low intensity conflicts abetted by both internal elements and unfriendly neighbours. Indias great neighbours not being really friendly be it Pakistan or China. Avoiding all risk to human life or manned search aircraft operating in hostile territory, poor weather or hazardous environments, UAVs fitted with sensors can be used to safely perform the Search-Locate-Identify elements of importance in a missions. Unmanned (or uninhabited) aerial vehicles (UAVs) are methodically becoming a central theme in the mosaic of Air Force systems and capability. The questions regarding employment of UAVs are not so much about if they should be developed but how to integrate them into Air Force doctrine and organizations. The Study identified reconnaissance UAVs as one of the high leverage systems of the future. Accordingly, the Air Force has made a concerted effort to develop UAVs and sensor technologies with a particular emphasi s on intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) applications. This paper addresses considerations for improving the future application of UAVs for the ISR mission and their employment in LICO across our vast borders. Specifically, this research illustrates that UAVs in concert with manned and space assets addresses several Air Force ISR needs. Furthermore, the Air Force should seize the opportunity to leverage the rapid advances in sensor and information technology to increase the capability of UAVs to perform ISR while also performing other vital air power missions. 3. Used as drones in the First World War, RPVs since then have been used as targets for artillery guns, missiles and piloted aircraft or to bring exposed film of hostile territory. With advanced technology, RPVs are now being so designed so as to carry payloads for varied purposes and missions, such as for surveillance (TV cameras, Infra Red (IR) Imagers, sensors) or equipment for electronic counter measures (radar jammers, flares or chaff) or strictly for employment as weapon platforms. 4. A number of countries are today engaged in RPV development projects, prominent amongst these being UK, USA, France and Israel. It has been stated that the RPVs will be able to take on a number of missions and assignments, which are currently being performed by manned aircraft. As tactical aircraft are too few and too expensive to launch for random searches for targets in a battle area, manned reconnaissance (recce) in particular is being reduced in emphasis in favour of RPVs, which are cheaper. The comparative cost of a lost RPV vis-Ã  -vis a manned aircraft with a trained pilot is in itself a sufficient and good enough reason for undertaking such a research and development. 5. RPV can provide close recce of troops deployed in depth which would otherwise have to be undertaken by fighter aircraft, perform spotting functions for incoming munitions and designate as well as destroy targets, Jam enemys electronic equipment, act as radio relay stations and provide real-time intelligence. Further, by penetrating an enemys territory they alert electronic systems and this leads to their early detection. RPVs are therefore about to become an invaluable accretion for providing real-time, over the battlefield surveillance capability. But for all its virtues it is still being debated as to whether an RPV will be able to stand and fight alone or would it only compliment an air force. 6. Of the principles of war defined by Clausewitz the element of surprise has probably made the greatest contribution to success. In the military context therefore the denial of surprise to a potential aggressor is paramount. Equally the acquisition of intelligence is a vital factor in any operational venture. From the very earliest days of aviation the foresighted became aware of the use of aerial platforms for reconnaissance tasks. This has been true throughout the history of warfare. The Second World War saw a quantum leap in reconnaissance from the third dimension. In the Arab Israel wars of 1967 and 1973 the use of aerial reconnaissance enabled Israel dramatically to demonstrate the use of force multiplication through intelligence gained. Air reconnaissance has always been important to the success in war. It is the UAV whose time has come in ensuring that aerial reconnaissance continues to give intelligence in a high intensity air defence scenario. They have proved their worth i n reconnaissance and surveillance. 7. In an age of shrinking defence budgets, expensive manned aircraft and high cost of aircrew training most of the modern armed forces around the world are realising the need to employ RPVs for missions in the dense hostile Air Defence (AD) environment. Missions which were considered extremely dangerous and yet important can now be undertaken by RPVs with relative impunity. Owing to their small radar, IR signature and the ability to spoof the enemy, RPVs can give vital real time data about the enemy to commanders on the ground. RPVs if employed intelligently can make a significant contribution by keeping manned aircraft out of the hostile AD threats while providing real time information and at the same time denying the same by effective electronic warfare to the decision makers in a conflict between adversaries. Statement of the Problem 8. To study and evaluate the efficacy of employing UAVs in ISR role in sub-conventional warfare in the Indian context with special reference to counter terrorist operation across our vast borders. Justification of the Study 9. The UAV has shown, in counter-insurgency and in anti-terrorist operations as much as in war, the critical importance of an eye in the sky. UAV can be effectively employed in gathering the intelligence in terrorist training camps, their infiltration routes etc, to build an effective databank for use in the future. The Israel Army has deployed a new miniature unmanned aerial vehicle in counter-insurgency operations over the West Bank. The Israeli army has launched operations of the Skylark tactical UAV for counter-insurgency missions in the northern West Bank. Skylark began flying missions in late 2005 in what marked the first operational deployment of the new UAV. The MQ-1 Predator, armed with the AGM-114 Hellfire missile continues to be one of the US militarys most requested systems, assisting in the execution of the global war on terror by finding, fixing, tracking, targeting, engaging, and assessing suspected terrorist locations. 10. Historically unmanned aircrafts have been employed successfully in number of conventional operations. Their relatively low cost and the modest political embarrassment likely to be caused by their loss, seems to make them irreplaceable especially in a LICO environment where the enemy is difficult to identify and the political compulsions are high. UAVs can facilitate employment of aircraft, long-range guns and missiles by accurate target acquisition.. UAVs hold out a promise of providing a range of ISR and other support missions. Some of these are battlefield reconnaissance and surveillance, fire control and direction, communication and radar suppression. This study has been prompted in being able to identify and analyse the technical and tactical requirements of a UAV for aerial reconnaissance and to suggest the principle of employment for the task in sub conventional war.. 11. The day of the UAV as a natural ingredient of military thinking is much nearer than it was a decade ago, but there is still a need for clearer and more widespread understanding of what the UAV can be used to do as a tool for reconnaissance in a sub-conventional warfare which is more likely to be faced by our country in the future. Hypothesis 12. UAVs have been proposed for several mission areas including ISR, communications, and weapons delivery. The UAVs were used extensively in recent war. Direction is needed to ensure these maturing UAVs are used in the most effective way. The on-going revolution in sensor technology that will improve the UAVs ability to perform ISR missions now conducted by high-value, manned assets. 13. Todays ISR missions are sophisticated operations. Covert or overt, they are executed using traditional techniques and modern technology – with expensive equipment and infrastructures often requiring highly skilled operators. The requirement for information is likely to keep increasing as warfare becomes more oriented towards reconnaissance-strike. In future scenarios, no one system is going to be able t o meet all data collection requirements. Manned aircraft will not be available for all the intelligence needs of the warfighter. Satellite systems also have limitations that will prevent them from being the sole suppliers of information. The capabilities of UAVs make them ideally suited to fill the increasing void between intelligence requirements and existing data collection capability. Scope 14. The scope of this dissertation is to go into the evolution of UAVs, development and employment of UAV in recent wars. It will concentrate on the ISR aspects while identifying the characteristics/requirements of a UAV in a sub-conventional war. As UAVs being one of the high leverage systems of the future, the Air Force has to make a concerted effort to procure UAVs and sensor technologies with a particular emphasis on intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) applications. This paper addresses considerations for improving the future application of UAVs for the ISR mission. Furthermore, the Air Force should seize the opportunity to leverage the rapid advances in sensor and information technology to increase the capability of UAVs to perform ISR while also performing other vital air power missions. 15. The scope of this dissertation is to critically analyse the efficacy of employment of UAVs in Armed role in sub-conventional environment which is more likely to be faced by India in future. It aims to study the application of UAV in LICO, study the advantages of employing UAVs in LICO in ISR role and suggest the philosophy for employment of UAVs in LICO in the ISR role. Methods of Data Collection 16. The information in this dissertation has been collected from the reference material available in the DSSC Library and from the Internet. The bibliography of the sources is appended at the end of the text. Organisation of the Dissertation 17. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I. Introduction. (b) Chapter II . Evolution of UAVs. (c) Chapter III . Classification of UAVs. (d) Chapter IV . Characteristics of UAVs. (e) Chapter V . Importance of UAVs and ISR Sensors. (f) Chapter VI . Principles of employment of the UAV for aerial reconnaissance. (g) Chapter VII . Low intensity conflict operations. (h) Chapter VIII. Employment philosophy for UAVs in sub conventional warfare. (j) Chapter IX . Conclusion CHAPTER II EVOLUTION OF UAVs UAV technology is a vast field with wide and enough scope for exploration to produce a new and challenging tool of warfare VK Madhok Battlefields of The Early 21st Century. History of Evolution of UAVs/RPVs 1. Unmanned aircraft have a history as long as that of aviation itself. Even before the First World War a French artillery officer, Rene Lorin had proposed the use of flying bombs to attack distant targets. This aircraft he suggested could be stabilized in flight by a combination of gyroscopes and barometer, guided along the track by radio signal from an accompanying piloted aircraft propelled by a pulse jet or ram jet engine to hit the target. 2. The drones/RPV idea actually goes back to the technology of the First World War. The grandparents of todays unmanned vehicles were the Kettering bug and Sperry Aerial Torpedo used in 1917 and 1918. They were winged carts on wheels with engines that somehow managed to lift them into the air after a fast start on a pair of rails. Though they flew, they left much to be desired in terms of sophistication and were not useful as an accurate, winged bomb. More successful, however was the effort that lasted from 1928 to 1932 in which the Curtis Robin aircraft was turned into a working drone. Then, in the late 1930s there was a rush of military interest in remotely controlled vehicles, which led to a raft of special weapons including a second Bug, essentially a surface to surface buzz bomb, and the Bat, a radio controlled glide Bomb. Out of this pack came the first truly usable weapon: the crude but legal GB 1, which was a 2000 bomb with plywood wings and rudders and a radio control packag e. These were dropped from B-17s and visually guided by bombardiers to their target. In 1943, 108 GB-1s were dropped on cologne causing heavy damage. Later in the war came the GB-4 Robin, the first television guided weapon and Q-2 developed by Ryan Aeronautical Company (now Teledyne–Ryan) in 1946 from which have developed most of todays modern RPVs/UAVs. 3. In the United States, the UAV has normally been associated with the reconnaissance mission and designed to be a recoverable asset for multiple flight operations. The remotely piloted vehicles (RPV) of the early 1960s were developed in response to the perceived vulnerability of the U-2 reconnaissance aircraft, which had been downed over the Soviet Union in 1960 and again over Cuba in 1962.Red Wagon was the code name for a 1960 project by Ryan Aeronautical Company to demonstrate how its drones could be used for unmanned, remotely guided photographic reconnaissance missions. As early as 1965, modified Ryan Firebee drones were used to overfly China with some losses experienced. Vietnam War 4. The best known UAV operations were those conducted by the United States Air Force during the Vietnam War. Ryan BQM-34 (Ryan designation: Type 147) Lightning Bug drones were deployed to the theater in 1964.[iii] . In addition to the reconnaissance role, Teledyne Ryan also experimented with lethal versions of the BQM-34 drone. In 1971 and 1972, drones were armed with Maverick missiles or electro-optically guided bombs (Stubby Hobo) in an attempt to develop an unmanned defense suppression aircraft to be flown in conjunction with manned strike aircraft. 5. The Vietnam War was notable in two regards with respect to unmanned aircraft. It was the first war in which reconnaissance UAV were employed and it was notable for the ubiquity of the drones which was use throughout the war. An average of one mission was flown each day during this lengthy war. Employment in Recent Conflicts 6. Yom Kippur – 73 . It was in 1973, that the Israelis effectively used the RPV for reconnaissance and surveillance. The main unmanned aircraft were Mastiff, Scout and the Pioneer. These could also be used for Electronic Warfare. The valuable information gained from these sorties, besides the fire drawn from Arab SAMs which increased the vulnerability of the Air Defence systems found the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle enjoying a pivotal role in the Israeli success. 7. Bekka Valley – 1982. The Israelis once again explored the use of unmanned aircraft during air operations. Besides surveillance and intelligence gathering drones over the Syrian air space were able to gauge reactions of the air defence systems and cater for suitable counter measure. During the Israeli attack, it is reported that RPVs were used to monitor runway activity, activate Syrian fire control radars so that behind the first wave of decoy aircraft, Israeli aircraft could launch their anti, radiation missiles for neutralization of the radars. A large degree of success can be attributed to the employment of this platform wherein the Syrian had losses of 19 SAM batteries and 86 combat aircraft for the corresponding loss of only a solitary Israeli aircraft. The UAVs used were Teledyne, Scout, Mastiff, Samson and Delilah. It was therefore seen that in a dense AD environment, the use of unmanned aircraft would provide rich dividends. 8. The types of RPVs used were the Teledyne BQM-34, Scout, Mastiff, Samson and Delilah. During the operation certain important lessons were learnt, namely:- (a) Training under operational condition is essential for success of operations. (b) Instead of an all-purpose RPV, a family of RPVs with specific task related capability would be more suitable. (c) Simulation of fighter aircraft with use of corner reflector on RPV could lend an element of surprise. (d) The RPVs proved to be a major force multiplier. (e) The low radar, IR, acoustic and optical signature reduced its vulnerability to ground fire and electronic counter measures. (f) The Bekaa Valley operation proved that RPVs are a cost effective means of conducting reconnaissance, electronic warfare and intelligence gathering. (g) It is an ideal platform for employment in a dense AD environment of a modern TBA. (h) The operations re-emphasized the worlds faith in the utility of RPVs in a modern battle. Gulf War 1991 9. UAVs were used extensively by the US in the Gulf War. The Israeli built Pioneer UAV flew 530 missions into Iraqi territory. The other types of UAVs which were used by the US were the BAI-Exdrone and the French Alpilles-MART. Besides the conventional uses of reconnaissance, surveillance, target acquisition and Arty fire control, UAVs were used innovatively for pre-ingress route reconnaissance of Apache AH-64 helicopters, individual chemical agent detection (ICAD) and command, control, communication and intelligence functions The US Navy used UAVs for detection of enemy vessels, detection of Silkworm anti-shipping missile sites, mine detection and naval gunfire direction. The Multi National Forces employed UAVs like the Pioneer, Pointer, Midge, Mart and the Exdrone for reconnaissance, surveillance and battle damage assessment. The US Marine Corps extensive use of UAVs offset the Armys shortfall in aircraft-based reconnaissance. (a) Pioneer . Six Pioneer units each equipped with five UAVs were deployed in the theatre, three with the US Marines, one with US army and one each on USS Missouri and USS Wisconsin. It was used round-the- clock, using TV or (forward looking infra-red) FLIR sensors, for (reconnaissance, intelligence, surveillance and target acquisition (RISTA). The US Navy used it to search for Silkworm sites, air defence arty guns; and command and control bunkers. The US Marines used them for real-time targeting with attack aircraft. Pioneers flew 307 sorties in the campaign logging 1011 hours. Of these, seven were lost two to AD arty and five to non-combat reasons, and 26 were damaged of which 13 were repaired in theater and re-used. Pioneer, already a veteran of activity in the Gulf, reiterated its value, both from the decks of the battleships of USS Missouri and Wisconsin and with the ground forces. One Pioneer achieved a bizarre first for UAVs when a group of Iraqi soldiers, seeing their bunker under observat ion from the circling craft, emerged waving white flags. (b) Pointer . Pointer is a low cost, hand launched and battery operated RPV that is equipped with a TV camera. Weighing only 8 pounds, its use was limited due to strong winds. Nonetheless, pointer was used during the early morning and late afternoons when winds were light. It was often used for rear area security, checking for foot prints in the sand that had not been there the night before. It was also sometimes used to scout roads before vehicles moved down them. (c) F-47A Exdrones . These were deployed during the Gulf War in the surveillance role, carrying miniature colour TV cameras and microwave video transmitters. Amongst other achievements, it detected that Iraqi forces had abandoned their defences in Kuwait, allowing the US Marines to advance more than a day earlier than what had been planned. This was also used in electronic warfare roles such as jamming and communication interception. 10. Some of the important lessons learnt from Gulf War are:- (a) Diverse family of RPVs are required rather than one all-purpose model like Pioneer with US. (b) Smaller, target-spotting tactical RPVs would be easier to operate near the front lines. (c) Larger, long-endurance unmanned vehicles could take off from behind the battle field and yet patrol large strategic areas. (d) Small numbers of low observable RPVs could carry out recce missions with high chance of survival. 11. Bosnian Conflict . The NATO forces in Bosnia used the Tier-2 Predator to monitor the enforcement of cease-fire. Specific tasks included detection of movement of ammunition at night and detection of tampering of mass graves by Bosnian Serbs at night. CHAPTER II I CLASSIFICTION OF UAV Knowledge of an enemys dispositions and movements has always been a key to success in war John WR Taylor, David Mondey Spies in the Sky. 1. Classification of UAVs may be based on important attributes such as range, endurance, flight altitude and launch or recovery methods. Broadly UAVs can be classified into tactical and strategic categories. A further sub division may also include offensive UAVs and Decoys. 2. Relevance. It is important that we understand the broad classification of the UAV tree as it would thereafter be easy to associate roles that can be assigned to the UAV in context of tasks which manned aircraft are required to perform. For any comparison with the manned aircraft, a generic understanding enables us to be able to oversee the debate between manned aircraft vis a vis manned aircraft from an overall objective and broader perspective. 3. Tactical UAV: (a) Micro UAV . Mainly useful for reconnaissance, surveillance and target acquisition (RSTA), sampling NBC and Electronic Warfare (EW), the range is limited to 10 kms with endurance of less than an hour and max altitude of 250 metres. (b) Mini UAV . Mostly for civil use and similar to micro UAV except that the endurance is greater upto two hours. (c) Close Range UAV . With a range of 10 to 30 Kms, and endurance of 2-4 hrs, ceiling of 3000 meters, this group is used for RSTA, arty correction and mine detection. (d) Short Range UAV . Range of 30-70 Km and an endurance of 3 to 6 hrs, This could also be employed for NBC sampling and post strike damage assessment. (e) Medium Range UAV . The range is enhanced up to 70-200 kms with endurance of 6-10 hr and the altitude band from 3000-5000 metres. This is used for communication relays also. (f) Low Altitude Deep Penetration UAV . The main feature is its ability to escape enemy radar cover. It has an endurance of up to an hour with a range of beyond 250 Km and ceiling limits of 9000 m. This is mainly armed to provide commanders the capability to look deep into enemy territory. (g) Long Range UAV. With a range of up to 1000 kms and endurance of 6-13 hrs, the UAV is mainly employed on RSTA, Post strike damage assessment and communications relays. (h) Endurance UAVs. As the name suggests, it has the ability to operate upto 24 hrs and ranges greater than 500 kms. Utilized for RSTA, post strike damage assessment, relay, Electronic Warfare and NBC sampling. 4. Strategic UAV (a) Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE). The striking feature is that it can be used for weapons delivery. Operating in a range of 500-700 Kms from 234-48 hrs, it can also be used in tactical roles upto a ceiling from 5000 to 8000 metres. (b) High Altitude Long Endurance . Operating in the 15000 – 20000 metres band, it can be utilized as a missile launch vehicle. It operates for ranges upto 6000 kms. 5. Offensive UAV. This category caters for weapons which are anti-tank/vehicle, anti-radar or antiship. 6. Decoys . Certain aerial and naval decoys with endurance ranging from a few minutes to several hours, these may be launched via canisters, rockets or air launched. 22. Sensor Systems . The sensor systems are required for the various modes of reconnaissance which can be carried out by the UAV. These will be discussed in detail further in this paper. The various modes of reconnaissance are:- (a) Photographic Reconnaissance . The main sensor for photographic reconnaissance is the camera. The various types of camera systems for photographic reconnaissance are:- (i) Vertical Photograph Cameras. (ii) Oblique Photograph Cameras. (iii) Pin point Photograph Cameras. (iv) Split Vertical Photograph Cameras. (v) Trimetrogon. (vi) Multi-Camera Fan. (vii) Panoramic. (viii) Long Range Oblique Photography and Long Range Aerial Photography. (ix) Sonne Strip Photography. (x) IR Camera. (b) Infra- red Reconnaissance . The infra-red spectrum is used in reconnaissance in two distinct forms. The reflective portion of the infra-red is made use of in infra-red photography. The emissive portion of the infra-red is used in reconnaissance with the aid of appropriate sensors by a process called thermal imaging. This mode of reconnaissance uses emissive infra-red radiations and employs thermal detectors that transform infra-red radiation into detectable electrical signals. The output electrical voltage is recorded either on a magnetic tape for digital analysis by computer or on a film. The main types of infra-red reconnaissance systems which can be used by the UAV are:- (i) Infra-red Line Scan. (ii) Forward Looking Infra-Red (FLIR). (c ) Reconnaissance by Electronic Means . Reconnaissance by electronic means involves the use of radar and TV i.e. they need microwave sensors and light sensors. The two main types of reconnaissance by electronic means are thus radar reconnaissance and TV reconnaissance. 7. There is today a very clear direction of evolving UAV for specific purposes. Much like manned aircraft which have specified roles such as Air Defence, Air Interdiction and so on. Specialization is the buzz word in the UAV family wherein by changing payloads different functions can be performed. The broad classification above is likely to undergo changes in the future where specific functional UAVs would be listed. CHAPTER I V CHARACTERISTICS OF UAV Knowledge of an enemys dispositions and movements has always been a key to success in war John WR Taylor, David Mondey Spies in the Sky. UAV And Manned Aircraft A Comparison 1. Cost (a) Cost of Aircraft . The high cost of current generation fighter aircraft is a cause for concern to air force planners the world over. What is worse is their unit cost is continuing to escalate inexorably. A few examples will corroborate the fact. At 1985 prices, USAF aircraft like the P-51 Mustang of 1944 would have cost $ 0.5 million; the F- 100 Super Sabre of 1954 would be a little over $ 2 million; the F-4 Phantom of 1962 would be $ 6 million; while the F-15 Eagle of 1974 would cost $ 25 million. Similarly in the UK, the Harrier GR. 1 of 1970 costs four times as much as the Hunter fighter of the fifties and the Hawk training aircraft costs one and a half times as much as its predecessor the Gnat. In our own air force, the Mirage 2000 cost Rs 24 crores a piece when it was inducted in the Indian Airforce in 1985, while today it is in excess of 120 crores. (b) Cost of In-service Support . It is not just the unit capital cost of aircraft that is rising this way, so is the cost of in-service support. As a rough rule of thumb, the cost of in-service support for an aircraft is about twice the production cost. Statistics from Tactical Air Command of the USAF show that the cost of replenishment spare parts during the in-service life an F-4G aircraft is $ 3.5 million and for an F-15A, it is $ 10.7 million, while the depot maintenance costs for the same aircraft are $ 7.7 million and $ 5.8 million respectively. The total in-service operational and support costs for one aircraft including all items such as fuel, pay for unit personnel, pay for indirect support personnel, support equipment and so on, work out to $ 66.4 million and $ 64.2 million respectively for the two types. (c ) Personnel Costs . The cost of personnel to operate, service and support the aircraft are also high. Combat fighters in the USAF inventory need an average of 17 maintenance specialists for each machine, and a detachment of 24 F-15s for a 30 day period calls for 621 maintenance specialist in 22 different trades, together with 370 tons of equipment. The aircrew are also an expensive asset and their training costs are rising sharply. For example, it costs the RAF a little over $ 5 million at 1987 prices to train a pilot of a fast jet aircraft like the Harrier or a Tornado. (d) Cost of the Training Organization . The ratio of training aircraft to combat aircraft has always been high in any modern air force. For example in the RAF in 1987, there were 758 combat aircraft as compared to 833 in training units (including operational conversion units). It implies that higher the number of combat aircraft in any air force, the number of training aircraft would increase in a higher if not similar proportion. (e) Cost of UAVs versus Aircraft . (i) Mini UAVs . UAVs require neither crew nor crew supporting systems. Therefore, they are bound to be simple, smaller and thus a great deal cheaper than their manned counterparts. For example the unit cost of a Pointer RPV is $10,000. On the other hand the cost of Mig 21, which is used for TAC-R in the Indian Air Force, is $ 1 million. Now if we include the costs of in-service support, personnel costs and the cost of training Organization, the cost balance tips heavily in favor of UAVs. This also means that for same investment, we can have more UAVs and the sheer weight of numbers should be able to make up for whatever deficiencies which result from the absence of a crew. (ii) HALE . Though there are UAVs like the Condor HALE whose unit cost is $ 20 million (at 1993 prices), it would be more appropriate to compare them with satellites; and aircraft like the SR-71, U-2 and Mig 25, due to their role and capability. Then their cost-effectiveness can scarcely be in doubt. (iii) Mission C osts . A comparison of the mission costs of a UAV and an equivalent aircraft for the same role will further corroborate the economy of UAVs. 2. Mobility . (a) Tactical . High mobility and reach are two characteristics of air power which can be exploited in a variety of ways, such as to concentrate for effect or to disperse for survival. It is in these fields that UAVs have a major disadvantage vis-Ã  -vis manned aircraft, since they cannot easily transfer their effort between bases. They need to be transported from one operating site to another whereas a